Differences in Physical Activity Density Between Pregnant Women with Gestational Diabetes Mellitus (GDM) and Normal (Non-GDM) Pregnant Women: A Comparative Study
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.54832/phj.v7i1.1008Keywords:
Physical Activity, Pregnant, Diabetes Melitus GestasionalAbstract
Background: Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is a condition of impaired glucose tolerance that leads to high blood sugar levels and is diagnosed for the first time during pregnancy, with varying degrees of severity. Insufficient physical activity is one of the top global risk factors for premature death. During pregnancy, a lack of physical activity and excessive weight gain are independent risk factors for maternal obesity and related complications, including gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM).
Objectives: The aim of this study was to compare the physical activity density between pregnant women diagnosed with gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) and those with normal pregnancies.
Methods: This study utilized an observational analytical approach with a comparative design. A purposive sampling technique was employed, with 32 participants in the case group and 32 in the control group. The research was conducted between August and October 2024 at the Obstetrics and Gynecology clinic of Airlangga University Hospital. Data were analyzed using the non-parametric Mann-Whitney Test.
Results: The analysis using the Mann-Whitney Test showed a significant p-value of 0.002, indicating a difference in the physical activity density between pregnant women with gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) and those with normal pregnancies.
Conclusion: Pregnant women without gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) have higher physical activity density compared to those with gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM). It is suggested that future research adopt an experimental approach, especially focusing on interventions to promote physical activity during pregnancy.
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References
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ACOG (2015) Gestational Diabetes [online] available from <https://www.acog.org/womens-health/faqs/gestational-diabetes> [20 November 2023]
Alfadhli, E.M. (2015) ‘Gestational Diabetes Mellitus’. Saudi Medical Journal 36 (4), 399–406
American Diabetes Association (2014) ‘Diagnosis and Classification of Diabetes Mellitus’. Diabetes Care 37 Suppl 1, S81-90
Ammutammima, U.F. (2020) Meta-Analisis Hubungan Riwayat Keluarga Diabetes Melitus Dengan Kejadian Gestasional Diabetes Mellitus. Surakarta: Universitas Sebelas Maret
BHC (2024) Exercise Intensity - Better Health Channel [online] available from <https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/healthyliving/exercise-intensity> [21 November 2024]
CDC (2024) Pregnant & Postpartum Activity: An Overview [online] available from <https://www.cdc.gov/physical-activity-basics/guidelines/healthy-pregnant-or-postpartum-women.html> [6 November 2024]
Chyad, M. and Faris Shalayel, M.H. (2011) ‘Pathophysiology of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: The Past, the Present and the Future’. in Gestational Diabetes [online] ed. by Radenkovic, M. InTech. available from <http://www.intechopen.com/books/gestational-diabetes/pathophysiology-of-gestational-diabetes-mellitus-the-past-the-present-and-the-future> [16 November 2024]
Cilar Budler, L. and Budler, M. (2022) ‘Physical Activity during Pregnancy: A Systematic Review for the Assessment of Current Evidence with Future Recommendations’. BMC Sports Science, Medicine and Rehabilitation 14 (1), 133
Cooper, D.B. and Yang, L. (2024) ‘Pregnancy And Exercise’. in StatPearls [online] Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing. available from <http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK430821/> [6 November 2024]
Dewi, R.S., Isfandiari, M.A., Yi-Li, C., and Martini, S. (2023) ‘Prevalence and Risk Factors of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus in Asia: A Review’. Journal of Public Health in Africa [online] available from <https://www.publichealthinafrica.org/jphia/article/view/2583> [19 November 2023]
Ehrlich, S.F., Hedderson, M.M., Brown, S.D., Sternfeld, B., Chasan-Taber, L., Feng, J., Adams, J., Ching, J., Crites, Y., Quesenberry, C.P., and Ferrara, A. (2017) ‘Moderate Intensity Sports and Exercise Is Associated with Glycaemic Control in Women with Gestational Diabetes’. Diabetes & Metabolism 43 (5), 416–423
Hart, E. and Im, T. (2018) ‘GDM as a Risk Factor for the Development of Type 2 Diabetes: An Educational Opportunity for Primary Care Providers’. Obstetrics & Gynecology 132, 47S
Hayashi, A., Oguchi, H., Kozawa, Y., Ban, Y., Shinoda, J., and Suganuma, N. (2018) ‘Daily Walking Is Effective for the Management of Pregnant Women with Gestational Diabetes Mellitus’. Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology Research 44 (9), 1731–1738
Hopkins Medicine (2019) Gestational Diabetes Mellitus (GDM) [online] available from <https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/diabetes/gestational-diabetes> [8 December 2024]
Kek, H.-P., Su, Y.-T., Tey, S.-J., Yang, M.-C., Chang, L.-C., Hung, Y.-H., and Tsai, C.-C. (2023) ‘The Joint Effect of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus and Hypertension Contribute to Higher Risk of Diabetes Mellitus after Delivery: A Nationwide Population-Based Study’. BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth 23 (1), 539
Kleinwechter, H., Schäfer-Graf, U., Bührer, C., Hoesli, I., Kainer, F., Kautzky-Willer, A., Pawlowski, B., Schunck, K., Somville, T., and Sorger, M. (2014) Gestational Diabetes Mellitus (GDM) Diagnosis, Therapy and Follow-Up Care [online] available from <https://www.thieme-connect.de/products/ejournals/html/10.1055/s-0034-1366412#N10FCE> [9 November 2024]
Liang, X., Zheng, W., Liu, C., Zhang, Lirui, Zhang, Li, Tian, Z., and Li, G. (2021) ‘Clinical Characteristics, Gestational Weight Gain and Pregnancy Outcomes in Women with a History of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus’. Diabetology & Metabolic Syndrome 13 (1), 73
Mishra, S., Shetty, A., Rao, C.R., Nayak, S., and Kamath, A. (2020) ‘Risk Factors for Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: A Prospective Case-Control Study from Coastal Karnataka’. Clinical Epidemiology and Global Health 8 (4), 1082–1088
Nasiri-Amiri, F., Bakhtiari, A., Faramarzi, M., Adib Rad, H., and Pasha, H. (2016) ‘The Association Between Physical Activity During Pregnancy and Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: A Case-Control Study’. International Journal of Endocrinology and Metabolism 14 (3), e37123
van Poppel, M.N.M., Ruchat, S.-M., and Mottola, M.F. (2014) ‘Physical Activity and Gestational Diabetes Mellitus’. Medicine and Sport Science 60, 104–112
Rahayu, A. and Rodiani, R. (2016) ‘Efek Diabetes Melitus Gestasional Terhadap Kelahiran Bayi Makrosomia’. Jurnal Majority 5 (4), 17–22
Rasjidi, I. (2014) Panduan Kehamilan Muslimah [online] Jakarta: PT Mizan Republika. available from <https://books.google.co.id/books?id=nSHdCgAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&hl=id#v=onepage&q&f=false> [30 October 2024]
Redden, S.L., LaMonte, M.J., Freudenheim, J.L., and Rudra, C.B. (2011) ‘The Association Between Gestational Diabetes Mellitus and Recreational Physical Activity’. Maternal and Child Health Journal 15 (4), 514–519
Russo, L.M., Nobles, C., Ertel, K.A., Chasan-Taber, L., and Whitcomb, B.W. (2015) ‘Physical Activity Interventions in Pregnancy and Risk of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis’. Obstetrics & Gynecology 125 (3), 576
Sari, S.N. (2018) Hubungan Aktivitas Fisik Dengan Diabetes Melitus Gestasional Pada Ibu Hamil Di Kabupaten Bantul DIY [online] other. Universitas Alma Ata Yogyakarta. available from <http://elibrary.almaata.ac.id> [31 October 2023]
Sholehuddin, M.A. (2017) Karakteristik Diabetes Melitus Pada Kehamilan Di RSU DR. Soetomo Periode Januari – Desember 2015 [online] skripsi. Universitas Airlangga. available from <http://lib.unair.ac.id> [17 November 2024]
Stone, T., DiPietro, L., and Stachenfeld, N.S. (2021) ‘Exercise Treatment of Obesity’. in Endotext [Internet] [online] MDText.com, Inc. available from <https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/books/NBK278961/> [16 November 2024]
Sun, H., Saeedi, P., Karuranga, S., Pinkepank, M., Ogurtsova, K., Duncan, B.B., Stein, C., Basit, A., Chan, J.C.N., Mbanya, J.C., Pavkov, M.E., Ramachandaran, A., Wild, S.H., James, S., Herman, W.H., Zhang, P., Bommer, C., Kuo, S., Boyko, E.J., and Magliano, D.J. (2022) ‘IDF Diabetes Atlas: Global, Regional and Country-Level Diabetes Prevalence Estimates for 2021 and Projections for 2045’. Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice 183, 109119
Weir, Z., Bush, J., Robson, S.C., McParlin, C., Rankin, J., and Bell, R. (2010) ‘Physical Activity in Pregnancy: A Qualitative Study of the Beliefs of Overweight and Obese Pregnant Women’. BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth 10 (1), 18
WHO (2021) Global Physical Activity Questionnaire (GPAQ) [online] available from <https://www.who.int/publications/m/item/global-physical-activity-questionnaire> [17 November 2024]
Wu, Q., Chen, Y., Zhou, M., Liu, M., Zhang, L., Liang, Z., and Chen, D. (2022) ‘An Early Prediction Model for Gestational Diabetes Mellitus Based on Genetic Variants and Clinical Characteristics in China’. Diabetology & Metabolic Syndrome 14 (1), 15
Xie, W., Zhang, L., Cheng, J., Wang, Y., Kang, H., and Gao, Y. (2024) ‘Physical Activity during Pregnancy and the Risk of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: A Systematic Review and Dose–Response Meta-Analysis’. BMC Public Health 24 (1), 594
Zhang, Li, Zheng, W., Huang, W., Zhang, Lirui, Liang, X., and Li, G. (2022) ‘Differing Risk Factors for New Onset and Recurrent Gestational Diabetes Mellitus in Multipara Women: A Cohort Study’. BMC Endocrine Disorders 22 (1), 3
ACOG (2015) Gestational Diabetes [online] available from <https://www.acog.org/womens-health/faqs/gestational-diabetes> [20 November 2023]
Alfadhli, E.M. (2015) ‘Gestational Diabetes Mellitus’. Saudi Medical Journal 36 (4), 399–406
American Diabetes Association (2014) ‘Diagnosis and Classification of Diabetes Mellitus’. Diabetes Care 37 Suppl 1, S81-90
Ammutammima, U.F. (2020) Meta-Analisis Hubungan Riwayat Keluarga Diabetes Melitus Dengan Kejadian Gestasional Diabetes Mellitus. Surakarta: Universitas Sebelas Maret
BHC (2024) Exercise Intensity - Better Health Channel [online] available from <https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/healthyliving/exercise-intensity> [21 November 2024]
CDC (2024) Pregnant & Postpartum Activity: An Overview [online] available from <https://www.cdc.gov/physical-activity-basics/guidelines/healthy-pregnant-or-postpartum-women.html> [6 November 2024]
Chyad, M. and Faris Shalayel, M.H. (2011) ‘Pathophysiology of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: The Past, the Present and the Future’. in Gestational Diabetes [online] ed. by Radenkovic, M. InTech. available from <http://www.intechopen.com/books/gestational-diabetes/pathophysiology-of-gestational-diabetes-mellitus-the-past-the-present-and-the-future> [16 November 2024]
Cilar Budler, L. and Budler, M. (2022) ‘Physical Activity during Pregnancy: A Systematic Review for the Assessment of Current Evidence with Future Recommendations’. BMC Sports Science, Medicine and Rehabilitation 14 (1), 133
Cooper, D.B. and Yang, L. (2024) ‘Pregnancy And Exercise’. in StatPearls [online] Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing. available from <http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK430821/> [6 November 2024]
Dewi, R.S., Isfandiari, M.A., Yi-Li, C., and Martini, S. (2023) ‘Prevalence and Risk Factors of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus in Asia: A Review’. Journal of Public Health in Africa [online] available from <https://www.publichealthinafrica.org/jphia/article/view/2583> [19 November 2023]
Ehrlich, S.F., Hedderson, M.M., Brown, S.D., Sternfeld, B., Chasan-Taber, L., Feng, J., Adams, J., Ching, J., Crites, Y., Quesenberry, C.P., and Ferrara, A. (2017) ‘Moderate Intensity Sports and Exercise Is Associated with Glycaemic Control in Women with Gestational Diabetes’. Diabetes & Metabolism 43 (5), 416–423
Hart, E. and Im, T. (2018) ‘GDM as a Risk Factor for the Development of Type 2 Diabetes: An Educational Opportunity for Primary Care Providers’. Obstetrics & Gynecology 132, 47S
Hayashi, A., Oguchi, H., Kozawa, Y., Ban, Y., Shinoda, J., and Suganuma, N. (2018) ‘Daily Walking Is Effective for the Management of Pregnant Women with Gestational Diabetes Mellitus’. Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology Research 44 (9), 1731–1738
Hopkins Medicine (2019) Gestational Diabetes Mellitus (GDM) [online] available from <https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/diabetes/gestational-diabetes> [8 December 2024]
Kek, H.-P., Su, Y.-T., Tey, S.-J., Yang, M.-C., Chang, L.-C., Hung, Y.-H., and Tsai, C.-C. (2023) ‘The Joint Effect of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus and Hypertension Contribute to Higher Risk of Diabetes Mellitus after Delivery: A Nationwide Population-Based Study’. BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth 23 (1), 539
Kleinwechter, H., Schäfer-Graf, U., Bührer, C., Hoesli, I., Kainer, F., Kautzky-Willer, A., Pawlowski, B., Schunck, K., Somville, T., and Sorger, M. (2014) Gestational Diabetes Mellitus (GDM) Diagnosis, Therapy and Follow-Up Care [online] available from <https://www.thieme-connect.de/products/ejournals/html/10.1055/s-0034-1366412#N10FCE> [9 November 2024]
Liang, X., Zheng, W., Liu, C., Zhang, Lirui, Zhang, Li, Tian, Z., and Li, G. (2021) ‘Clinical Characteristics, Gestational Weight Gain and Pregnancy Outcomes in Women with a History of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus’. Diabetology & Metabolic Syndrome 13 (1), 73
Mishra, S., Shetty, A., Rao, C.R., Nayak, S., and Kamath, A. (2020) ‘Risk Factors for Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: A Prospective Case-Control Study from Coastal Karnataka’. Clinical Epidemiology and Global Health 8 (4), 1082–1088
Nasiri-Amiri, F., Bakhtiari, A., Faramarzi, M., Adib Rad, H., and Pasha, H. (2016) ‘The Association Between Physical Activity During Pregnancy and Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: A Case-Control Study’. International Journal of Endocrinology and Metabolism 14 (3), e37123
van Poppel, M.N.M., Ruchat, S.-M., and Mottola, M.F. (2014) ‘Physical Activity and Gestational Diabetes Mellitus’. Medicine and Sport Science 60, 104–112
Rahayu, A. and Rodiani, R. (2016) ‘Efek Diabetes Melitus Gestasional Terhadap Kelahiran Bayi Makrosomia’. Jurnal Majority 5 (4), 17–22
Rasjidi, I. (2014) Panduan Kehamilan Muslimah [online] Jakarta: PT Mizan Republika. available from <https://books.google.co.id/books?id=nSHdCgAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&hl=id#v=onepage&q&f=false> [30 October 2024]
Redden, S.L., LaMonte, M.J., Freudenheim, J.L., and Rudra, C.B. (2011) ‘The Association Between Gestational Diabetes Mellitus and Recreational Physical Activity’. Maternal and Child Health Journal 15 (4), 514–519
Russo, L.M., Nobles, C., Ertel, K.A., Chasan-Taber, L., and Whitcomb, B.W. (2015) ‘Physical Activity Interventions in Pregnancy and Risk of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis’. Obstetrics & Gynecology 125 (3), 576
Sari, S.N. (2018) Hubungan Aktivitas Fisik Dengan Diabetes Melitus Gestasional Pada Ibu Hamil Di Kabupaten Bantul DIY [online] other. Universitas Alma Ata Yogyakarta. available from <http://elibrary.almaata.ac.id> [31 October 2023]
Sholehuddin, M.A. (2017) Karakteristik Diabetes Melitus Pada Kehamilan Di RSU DR. Soetomo Periode Januari – Desember 2015 [online] skripsi. Universitas Airlangga. available from <http://lib.unair.ac.id> [17 November 2024]
Stone, T., DiPietro, L., and Stachenfeld, N.S. (2021) ‘Exercise Treatment of Obesity’. in Endotext [Internet] [online] MDText.com, Inc. available from <https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/books/NBK278961/> [16 November 2024]
Sun, H., Saeedi, P., Karuranga, S., Pinkepank, M., Ogurtsova, K., Duncan, B.B., Stein, C., Basit, A., Chan, J.C.N., Mbanya, J.C., Pavkov, M.E., Ramachandaran, A., Wild, S.H., James, S., Herman, W.H., Zhang, P., Bommer, C., Kuo, S., Boyko, E.J., and Magliano, D.J. (2022) ‘IDF Diabetes Atlas: Global, Regional and Country-Level Diabetes Prevalence Estimates for 2021 and Projections for 2045’. Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice 183, 109119
Weir, Z., Bush, J., Robson, S.C., McParlin, C., Rankin, J., and Bell, R. (2010) ‘Physical Activity in Pregnancy: A Qualitative Study of the Beliefs of Overweight and Obese Pregnant Women’. BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth 10 (1), 18
WHO (2021) Global Physical Activity Questionnaire (GPAQ) [online] available from <https://www.who.int/publications/m/item/global-physical-activity-questionnaire> [17 November 2024]
Wu, Q., Chen, Y., Zhou, M., Liu, M., Zhang, L., Liang, Z., and Chen, D. (2022) ‘An Early Prediction Model for Gestational Diabetes Mellitus Based on Genetic Variants and Clinical Characteristics in China’. Diabetology & Metabolic Syndrome 14 (1), 15
Xie, W., Zhang, L., Cheng, J., Wang, Y., Kang, H., and Gao, Y. (2024) ‘Physical Activity during Pregnancy and the Risk of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: A Systematic Review and Dose–Response Meta-Analysis’. BMC Public Health 24 (1), 594
Zhang, Li, Zheng, W., Huang, W., Zhang, Lirui, Liang, X., and Li, G. (2022) ‘Differing Risk Factors for New Onset and Recurrent Gestational Diabetes Mellitus in Multipara Women: A Cohort Study’. BMC Endocrine Disorders 22 (1), 3
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Published
2025-02-14
How to Cite
Rohmatul Ummah, Muhammad Ilham Aldika Akbar, & Bambang Purwanto. (2025). Differences in Physical Activity Density Between Pregnant Women with Gestational Diabetes Mellitus (GDM) and Normal (Non-GDM) Pregnant Women: A Comparative Study . PROFESSIONAL HEALTH JOURNAL, 7(1), 201–210. https://doi.org/10.54832/phj.v7i1.1008
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